Egypt – History

The prehistoric period encompasses the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods, prior to the first appearance of agriculture in the Nile Valley. At this time people relied on gathering and hunter for subsistence, often in small family groups that could relocate to various sites as the seasons and food supplies changed. c.55,000 years ago we have the first child burial at Taramsa Hill and c.30,000 the first adult burial at Nazlet Khater.

From 5000-3150BCE we identify the Predynastic period. The first evidence of agriculture appears at 4500BCE and then increase social stratification and craft specialisation appears. Over time community groups increased in size and complexity, often remaining at one site rather than relocating as in the prehistoric period. The first localised rulers appear, laying the foundations for the later developments in the Dynastic period. 3250BCE we have the first appearance of writing from Tomb U-j at Abydos.

The Early Dynastic period is the time of state formation with increasing administrative and social complexity. It covers from Dynasty One to Three of ancient Egypt, starting with the first ruler King Narmer. In Dynasty Three we have the first pyramids appear with the Step Pyramid of Djoser (Netjerikhet) at Saqqara. Research dedicated to this period is increasing, but there is still much that is unknown with many royal tombs still to be identified.

The developments in state administration, craft specialisation and social stratification led to the consolidation of power and rise of the Old Kingdom (2604-2581BCE). Covering the Fourth to Sixth Dynasties, this period is renown for its monumental architecture such as the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza. We also see an increase in funerary structures, typically mastaba tombs, for private individuals and high officials of the state administration. Egyptian texts become more prevalent especially in the funerary sphere, with the inscribing of the pyramid texts. The end of the Old Kingdom appears to be linked to a rapid change in climate and a series of low Nile floods leading to a destabilisation of state control, though much research is still needed to clarify.

Between the three main Kingdoms of ancient Egypt are periods of state destabilisation, known as Intermediate Periods. While the First Intermediate Period is dated to c.2581-2055BCE, it is likely an Early Intermediate Period occurred during the Second Dynasty. The First Intermediate Period covers the Seventh to Tenth Dynasties, some of which overlap due to multiple rulers in various parts of the country. A change in the location of the capital during much of this time indicates the changing political fortunes of various rulers. It is not until the end of the period where the Theban rulers regained control of the state and solidified their rule under Mentuhotep II.

After the instability of the First Intermediate Period, Theban rulers reunified the state starting with Mentuhotep II. The Middle Kingdom comprises the Eleventh to Thirteenth Dynasties and parts of the order of succession remains unclear due to a prominence of co-regencies during this time. Changes in art and architecture resulted from a lost and rediscovery of knowledge and techniques due to the First Intermediate Period. This included new literature and writings that have been preserved through later writings (eg. The Story of Sinuhe, The Shipwrecked Sailor, and the writings of the Westcar Papyrus). Regional governors grew in power, creating their own dynasties and tomb complexes, with some of the most beautiful at Beni Hassan in Middle Egypt. Royal burial practices also changed, with the evolution of the Sun Temple; a mini pyramid-like structure atop a large temple mound.

During the Second Intermediate Period, the state was again divided: governed in the south by Kush and in the north by the Hyksos. While only lasting for approximately 100 years (1650-1550BCE), the Second Intermediate Period includes the overlapping Fourteenth to Sixteenth Dynasties. Eventually Theban rulers regained control of the region and under Kamose retook Buhen, the fortress town near the south border. Ahmose continued the fight to the north, retaking Avaris from the Hyksos and unifying the country once again.

The New Kingdom (1550-1069BCE) was the peak of Egyptian culture and building, providing four centuries of stability, but not without its challenges. The Eighteenth Dynasty includes many rulers known in popular culture, including the Amarna Period. While the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties are known as the Rameside Period, for the many rulers named or descended from Rameses I. With the reunification of the state after the Second Intermediate Period, great building programmes were started especially at the Temple of Amun at Karnak, with each ruler putting their own stamp on the site. During this period the sun cults continued to evolve, leading to the change in religious practice under Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV). This included the relocation of the capital to Tell el-Amarna (Akhetaten) and the banning of the god Amun. The most famous ruler of ancient Egypt comes from the end of this period, not for his great deeds but for the preservation of his tomb. Akhenaten's son, Tutankhaten, took the throne on the death of his father and at the urging of officials rebranded him self Tutankhamun and reinstituted the worship of Amun. His early death and connection to the heretical ruler Akhenaten, resulted in him being struck from the records and tomb lost until 1922 when it was discovered by Howard Carter.

Rameses II, also known as Rameses the Great (1279-1213BCE), is another prominent ruler of the New Kingdom. Being one of the longest lived rulers of ancient Egypt, his building programmes across Egypt provide us with temples and monuments that have lasted until today. The largest tomb in the Valley of the Kings (KV55) is still being excavated and was constructed, not for the king, but for his many, many children and grandchildren.

The Third Intermediate Period (1069-664BCE) covers the Twenty-first to Twenty-fifth Dynasties. The long reigns of Rameside rulers had destabilised the state administration and allowed opportunities for foreign invaders. The capital moved to Tanis in the Delta. Regional power centres grew in strength and broke away from the central government. Thebans was taken over by governors from Kush with their tombs constructed at South Asassif. In the north, Libyans asserted more control further destabilising the Egyptian control of the country. The political fragmentation and decentralisation resulted in a fundamental change to the state. While ancient Egyptian culture continued and the population thrived, the heights of the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms would not be seen again.

The Late Period is the term given to the 26th to 30th Dynasties of ancient Egypt (664-332BCE). Libyan, Nubian and Assyrian invaders took control of the country and ruled for varying dynastic lengths, before the native Egyptians regained control. The Saite Dynasty reunified the state but the successive invasion of the country from all directions during the Third Dynasty had changed Egyptian society. Greek and Phoenician mercenaries helped support the Egyptian army from neighbouring enemies, namely Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians. However, the Persian invasion of 525BCE successfully captured the king and took control of the state. The Late Period is a time of Egyptian independence, invasion and occupation; changing throughout the decades. It is not until the invasion by Alexander the Great in 332-323BCE, that the instability of Egypt stabilised and its fortunes returned under the Ptolemys.

Following the concurring of much of Asia and the near East by Alexander the Great (356-323BCE), the Persian Empire was defeated in Egypt (332BCE). Upon Alexander's death (possibly murdered) his lands were divided up amongst his supports with Egypt given to Ptolemy I Soter I (305-285BCE). Alexandria became a centre for learning, culture and trade for several centuries, with the Ptolomys expanding their territory to include Libya, Syria and northern Nubia. The dynasty came to an end with it's most famous ruler Cleopatra VII Philopator (51BCE-30CE), rumoured to have died by her own hand from the bite of a poisonous snake.

Roman Egypt is said to start around the death of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra in 30CE. Egyptian forces led by Cleopatra and Mark Antony were defeated by Augustus (Octavian: 30BCE-14CE) and Egypt became the breadbasket of Rome. Alexandria became a key trading post and scientific centre for the Mediterranean and greater region. However, Rome's influence in Egypt had started much earlier due to their reliance on trade. Julius Caesar visited Egypt just after the murder of Pompey the Great in Alexandria in 48BCE, where he later assisted Cleopatra to oust her brother from the throne and impregnate her.

The Byzantine Era in Egypt began with the reign of Diocletian, with many Christians persecuted. This era is also known as the Coptic Period with the establishment of the Coptic Church around 451CE. The Coptic Church survives until today with approximately 10% of the modern Egyptian population identifying as Copts. Invasions from Libya and Persia also occurred throughout this era

The Arab Islamic Empire conquered Egypt in 642CE. This led to the rise of Islam as the dominate religion in the region. Rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate rulers for six centuries under the Fatimids. Around 1250CE the Mamluks took control until 1517CE. During this time, Greek and Copitc language and culture went into decline. Many houses from these times can be visited in Old Cairo near the Khan el-Khalili Markets.

In 1517CE, Egypt was taken over by Ottoman Turks but plague and a focus on militarisation resulted in economic destabilisation. The population was further decimated by repeated periods of famine between 1687-1784. The invasion by the French, led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 resulted in the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. The French were expelled in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk and British forces with Muhammad Ali Pasha establishing a dynasty lasting until 1952. During much of this later period, Egypt was under indirect British rule.

The modern republic of Egypt was founded 1953 with Gamal Abdel Nasser becoming president in 1954. This followed the removal of British colonial forces from Egypt and returning control of the Suez Canal to Egypt. Significant rulers and events from this time, such as the Six-Day War and the October War, are commemorated throughout Egypt with suburbs, roads and cities named for them. In more recent history, the 2011 Arab Spring movement resulted in the ousting of President Mubarak and the eventual election of President El-Sisi.